There is no doubt that our ceremonies and
mysteries were derived from the rites, ceremonies
and institutions of the ancients, and some of them from the remotest
ages. Our morality is deduced from the maxims of the Grecian philosophers,
and perfected by the Christian revelation.
The institutors of this society had their eyes on the progressive advancement of religion, and they symbolized it, as well in the first stage, as in the succeeding orders of Masons. The knowledge of the God of Nature forms the first estate of our profession; the worship of the Deity, under the Jewish law, is described in the second stage of Masonry; and the Christian dispensation is distinguished in the last and highest order.
It is extremely difficult, with any degree of certainty, to trace the exact origin of our symbols, or from whence our ceremonies or mysteries were particularly derived. I shall point out some ancient institutions from whence they may have been deduced.
The Assideans (a sect among the Jews, divided into two denominations, the merciful and the just,) were the fathers and predecessors of the Pharisees and Essenes: they preferred their traditions before the written word, and set up for a sanctity and purity that exceeded the law: they at last fell into the error of the Sadducees, in denying the resurrection, and the faith of rewards and punishments after this life.
The Essenes* were of very remote antiquity;
and it hath been argued by divines, that they were as ancient
as the departure of the Israelites out of Egypt. They might take
their rise from that dispersion of their nation which happened
after their being carried captive into Babylon. The principal
character of this sect was, that they chose retirement, were sober,
were industrious; had all things in common; paid the highest regard
to the moral precepts of the law, but neglected the ceremonial,
any further than what regarded bodily cleanliness, the observation
of the sabbath, and making an present to the temple at Jerusalem.
They never associated with women, nor admitted them into their
retreats. By the most sacred oaths, though were in general averse
to swearing, or to requiring an oath, they bound all whom they
initiated among them to the observance of piety, justice, fidelity,
and modesty; to conceal the secrets fraternity, preserve the books
of their instruct tors, and with great care to commemorate the
names of the angels. They held, that God was surrounded by spiritual
beings, who were mediators with him, and therefore to be reverenced.
Second, that the soul is deified by the body, and that all bodily
pleasures hurt the soul, which they believed to be immortal, though
they denied the resurrection of the body, as it would consequently
give back the soul to a state of sin. Third, that there was a
great mystery in numbers, particularly in the number seven;**
they therefore attributed a natural holiness to the seventh or
Sabbath-day, which they observed more strictly than the other
Jews. They spent
their time most in contemplation, and abstained from every gratification
of the senses. The Essenes introduced their maxims into the Christian
church; and it is alleged by the learned, that St. Paul, in his
epistles to the Ephesians and Colossians, particularly censures
the tenets of this sect.
(* The etymologies of the names Essaei, or Esseni, i. e. in, are divers; that which I prefer is from the Syriac Asa signifying ?e??p????? to heal or cure diseases; for though they gave themselves chiefly to the study of the Bible yet withal they studied physic. Concerning the beginning of this sect, from whom Or when it began, it is hard to determine. Some make them as ancient as the Rechabites, and the Rechabites to have differed only in the addition of some rules and ordinances from the Kenites, mentioned in Judges i. 16, and thus, by consequence, the Essenes were as ancient as the Israelites' departure out of Egypt: for Jethro, Moses' father-in-law, as appears by the text, was a Kenite; but neither of these seemeth probable, for the Kenites are not mentioned in scripture as a distinct order or sect of people, but a distinct family, kindred, or nation. (Numb. xxiv. 2.) Secondly, the Rechabites did not build houses, but dwelt in tents; neither did they deal in husbandry; they sowed no seeds, nor planted vineyards, nor had any. (Jer. xxxv. 7.) The Essenes, on the contrary, dwelt not in tents, but in houses, and they employed themselves especially in husbandry. One of the Hebrew doctors saith, that the Essenes were Nazarites: but that cannot be, because the law enjoined the Nazarites, when the time of the consecration was on, to present themselves at the door of the tabernacle or temple. (Numb. vi.) Now the Essenes had no access to the temple; when, therefore, or from what author, this sect took its beginning is uncertain. The first that I find mentioned by the name of an Essene (Josephus, lib. xiii., C. 19) was one Judas, who lived in the time of Aristobulus, the - son of Jannus Hyrcanus, before our Saviour's birth about one hundred Years: however, this sect was of greater antiquity, for all three, Pharisees, Sadducees, and Essenes, were in Jonathan's time, the brother of Judas Maccabeus, who was fifty years before Aristobulus. Certain it is, that this sect continued until the days of our Saviour and after; Philo and Josephus speak of them as living in their times. What might be the reason, then, that there is no mention made of them in the New Testament? I answer, first, the number of them seemeth not to have been great in Philo and Josephus' time, about four thousand, which, being dispersed in many cities, made the faction weak and haply in Jerusalem, when our Saviour lived, they were either few or none. Secondly, if we observe histories, we shall find them peaceable and quiet, not opposing any, and therefore not so liable to reproof as the Pharisees and Sadducees, who opposed each other, and both joined against Christ. Thirdly, why might they not be passed over in silence in the New Testament (especially containing themselves quietly without contradiction of others), as the Rechabites in the Old Testament, of whom there is mention only once, and that obliquely, although their order continued about three hundred years before this testimony was given of them by the prophet Jeremy: for between John (with whom Jonadab was coetanean) and Zedekia, chronologers observe the distance of many years. Lastly, though the name of Essenes be not found in scripture, yet we shall find in St. Paul's Epistles many things reproved, which were taught in the school of the Essenes: of this nature was that advice given to Timothy, (1 Tim. v. 13.) Drink no longer water, but use a little wine. Again, (1 Tim. iv. 3.) Forbidding to marry, and commanding to abstain from meats, is a doctrine of devils -- but especially Coloss. 2d, in many passsges the apostle seemeth to point directly at them: Let no man condemn you in meat and drink, (ver. 16.) Let no man bear rule over you, by humbleness of mind, and worshipping of angels (ver. 18,) t? d??µat??es?e, why are ye subject to ordinances, (ver. 20.) The apostle useth the word d??µata which was applied by the Essenes to denote the ordinances, aphorisms, or constitutions. In the verse following he gives an instance of some particulars: Touch not, taste not, handle not, (ver. 21.) Now the junior company of the Essenes might not touch their seniors: and, in their diet, their taste was limited to bread, salt, water, and hyssop: and these ordinances they undertook, d?a p???? s?f?a? saith Philo, for the love of wisdom; but the apostle concludeth, (ver. 23,) that these things had only ????? s?f?a?, a show of wisdom. And whereas Philo termed the religion of the Essenes by the name of ?e?ape?a, which word signifieth religious worship, the apostle termeth in the same verse, e?e?????s?e?a?, voluntary religion, or will-worship: yea, where he termeth their doctrine pt??? f???s?f?a?, a kind of philosophy received from their forefathers by tradition, St. Paul biddeth them beware of philosophy, (ver. 8.)" (Godwyn's Moses and Aaron.)
(** In the History of Initiation, new edit., p.165, will be found a copious dissertation on the origin, design, and universal application of this sacred number.-EDITOR.)
Of these Essenes there were two sorts; some were Theoricks, giving themselves wholly to speculation;. others Practicks, laborious and painful in the daily exercise of those arts or manufactures in which they were most skilful. Of the latter Philo treated in his book, intituled, "Quod omnis Vir Probus:" of the former, in the book following, intituled, "De Vita Contemplativa."
The Essenes were denied access to the Temple.
The Practicks aud Theoricks both agreed in their aphorisms or ordinances; but in certain circumstances they differed. The Practicks dwelt in the cities; the Theoricks shunned the cities, and dwelt in gardens and solitary villages. The Practicks spent the day in manual crafts, keeping of sheep, looking to bees, tilling of ground, &c., they were artificers. The Theoricks spent the day in meditation and prayer; whence they were, from a kind of excellency, by Philo termed supplicants. The Practicks had every day their dinner and supper allowed them; the Theoricks only their supper. The Practicks had for their commons every one his dish of water-gruel and bread; the Theoricks only bread and salt: if any were of a more delicate palate than others, to him it was permitted to eat hyssop; their drink for both was common water.
Some are of opinion that these Theoricks
were Christian monks; but the contrary appeareth for
these reasons. In the whole book of Philo, concerning the Theoricks,
there is no mention either of Chist or Christians, of the Evangelists
or Apostles. The Theoricks, in that book o~ Philo's, are not any
new sect of late beginning, as the Christians at that time were,
as is clearly evinced by Philo's own words, in calling the doctrine
of the Essenes pat??a?f???s?f?a?, a philosophy derived unto them
by tradition from their forefathers.
In Grecian antiquity, we find a festival celebrated in honor of Ceres,* at Eleusis, a town Attica, where the Athenians, with great pomp many ceremonies, attended the mystic rites.* Historians tell us, that these rites were a mystical representation of what the mythologists taught of that goddess; and were of so sacred a nature, that no less than death was the penalty of discovery.
(* "It was the most celebrated and mysterious solemnity of any in Greece; whence it is often called, by way of eminence, the Mysteries; and so superstitiously careful were they to conceal the sacred rites, that if any person divulged any of them, he was thought to have called down some divine judgment upon his head, and it was accounted unsafe to abide in the same house with him; wherefore he was apprehended as a public offender, and suffered death. Such also was the secrecy of these rites, that if any person, who was not lawfully initiated, did but out of ignorance or mistake chance to be present at the mysterious rites, he was put to death. The neglect of initiation was looked upon as a crime of a very heinous nature; insomuch, that it was one part of the accusation for which Socrates was: condemned to death. Persons convicted of witchcraft, or any other heinous crime, or had committed murder, though involuntary, were debarred from these mysteries. In later times, certain institutions called the lesser mysteries, were used as preparative to the greater; for no persons were initiated in the greater, unless they had been purified at the lesser. The persons who were to be admitted to the greater mysteries made their sacrifice a year after purification, the secret rites of which (some few excepted, to which only priests were conscious) were frankly revealed to them. The manner of initiation was thus: the candidates, being crowned with myrtle, had admittance by night into a place called ??st???? s????, i. e. the mystical temple, which was an edifice so vast and capacious, that the most ample theatre did scarce exceed it. At their entrance, they purified themselves by washing their hands in holy water, and at the same time were admonished to present themselves with minds pure and undefiled, without which the external cleanness of the body would by no means be accepted. After this the holy mysteries were read to them out of a book called ?et??µa, which word is derived from pet?a, a stone; because the book was nothing else but two stones fitly cemented together. Then the priest that initiated them, called ?e??fa?t??; proposed certain questions, to which they returned answers in a set form, as may be seen in Meursius's Treatise on this festival. This done, strange and amazing objects presented themselves: sometimes the place they were in seemed to shake round them, sometimes appeared bright and resplendent with light and radiant fire; and then again covered with darkness and horror; sometimes thunder and lightning, sometimes frightful noises and bellowings, sometimes terrible apparitions astonished the trembling spectators. The garments in which they were initiated were accounted sacred, and of no less efficacy to avert evils than charms and incantations. The chief person that attended at the initiation was called Hierophantes, i. e., a revealer of holy things. The Hierophant had three assistants, the first of which was called from his office the torch-bearer; the second was called the crier; the third ministered at the altar, and for that reason was named ? ep? ß?µ? Hierophantes is said to have been a type of the greator of all things,--Daduchus, of the Sun; Cerux, of Mercury; and Œpiboma, of the Moon.")
(* See the History of Initiation, lect. vi., for a copious account of these ceremonies.)
There was another festival celebrated by
the Greeks at Platsea, in honor of Jupiter Eleutherius.
The assembly was composed of delegates from almost all the cities
of Greece; and the rites which were instituted in honor of Jupiter,
as the guardian of liberty, were performed with the utmost magnificence
and solemn pomp.
In Balsara, and along the banks of Jordan,
a sect of Christians are known, who call themselves
Christians of St. John; but, as they profess no knowledge of the
union of the third person in the Trinity, I am induced to believe
no part of our profession was derived from them. Their ceremonies
and mysteries are founded on tradition, and they permit no canonical
book to be received amongst them.
In the institution of the orders of knighthood the eyes of the founder were fixed on various religious ceremonies, being the general mode of ancient times. Knights of the Bath had their hair cut and beards shaven, were shut up in the chapel alone all night preceding their initiation, there to spend the solemn hours in fasting, meditation, and prayer they offered their sword at the altar, as devotees to the will of Heaven, and assumed a motto, expressive of their vow, "Tres in Uno," meaning the unity of the three theological virtues.* Various orders of knights wear a cross on their cloaks: those of the order of Christ in Livonia, instituted in 1205, wore this ensign, and were denominated Brothers of the Sword; and those of the order of the Holy Ghost wear a golden cross.
(* Perhaps it had a more sublime reference; for every candidate for knighthood was received in the name Of the Holy Trinity. "In nomine S. S. Trinitatis, Patris, Filii, et Spiritus Sancti (et beat? Mari? et Omnium Sanctorum), te recipio et do tibi habitum Templi." This was the formulary.-EDITOR.)
An ancient writing, which is preserved amongst Masons with great veneration,* requires my attention in this place, as it discovers to us what the ancient Masons regarded as the foundation of our profession. This writing is said to have come from the hand of King Henry the Sixth, who began his reign in 1422: it is in the form of an inquisition for a discovery of the nature of Masonry. From this ancient record we are told, "that the mystery of Masonry is a knowledge of nature and its operations. That this science arose in the East." ** From the East, it is well known, learning first extended itself into the western world, and advanced into Europe. "The East" was an expression used by the ancients to imply Christ: in this sense we find ??at??? used in the Prophets. "That the phoenicians first introduced this science. *** That Pythagoras journeyed; into Egypt and Syria, aud brought with him these mysteries into Greece." ****
(* Appendix, M.)
(** "And behold the glory of the God of Israel came from the East: and his voice was like the noise of many waters, and the earth shined with his glory. The East gate shall be shut, it shall not be opened, and no man shall enter in by it, because the glory of the God of Israel hath entered in by it, therefore it shall be shut. It is for the Prince. The Prince, be shall sit in it to eat bread before the Lord." (Ezek. xliii 2; xliv. 2, 3.) The propriety of our references to the East1 is discussed at some length in the "Star in the East," p.150.)
(*** It is the opinion of many great antiquaries,
that the Druids were established. in Britain, before they gained
any footing in Gaul; to quote the authorities for this would render
my work
too prolix. To a hew how early the maxims and principles of the
eastern nations may be communicated to this land, I must mention
some observations of learned men. Arthur Agard,
deputy chamberlain of the exchequer, 1570, (vide Bibl. Cotton.
Faustina, E. V.) speaking of the admeasurement of lands in this
country, says, "Our nation having their origin from the Tyrians,
brought from thence the same order as was observed in that country;
our lands were measured by hides, the etymology whereof is derived
from Dido's act' mentioned in Virgil, the word hyda not being
to be found in any other language but ours." It is the opinion
of the learned Dr. Stukely, "that there is no doubt our first
ancestors were of the progeny of Abraham, in the Arabian line,
by Hagar and Keturah, the lshmaelites and Midianites who came
hither with the Tyrian Hercules to seek for tin." After naming
many evidences and authorities to support this assertion, he adds,
"And these matters mutually prove one another, both that
they came hither by sea from the coast of Phoenicia, and they
brought the arts mentioned with them from the East." Admitting
that there is merely a probability in these opinions, it will
follow, that from thence the Druids would at once derive their
theological principles and their religious rites, -- the sacred
groves, the unhewn altars, the stone pillars, the consecrated
circles, emblematical of eternity, were adopted from the manners
of the Hebrews and the eastern nations.)
(**** 9 Appendix, N.)
It is known to all the learned that Pythagorm travelled into Egypt,* and was initiated there into several different orders of priests, who in those days kept all their learning secret from the vulgar. He made every geometrical theorem a secret, and admitted only such to the knowledge of them as had first undergone a five years' silence. He is supposed to be the inventor of the 47th proposition Euclid,** for which, in the joy of his heart, it is said he sacrificed a hecatomb.*** He knew the true system of the world, revived by Copernicus.
(* The wisdom and learning of Pythagoras were so far beyond the age when he flourished, that his biographers, Porphyry and Iamblichus, have attributed to him the possession of supernatural powers. Thus, they say, he was able to control the most ravenous beasts. He fondled the Daunian bear, which was a terror to the whole country; and, after feeding it with bread and acorns, forbad it in future from preying upon flesh; and it obeyed the injunction, living quietly in the woods, upon herbage and fruits. And when he was at Tarentum, seeing an ox eat green beans, he desired the herdsman to forbid it, who replied that he did not understand the language of oxen. Pythagoras then whispered in the ox's ear; on which he left the field, and never eat beans again. (Forph. vit. Pyth., num. 23; Iambl., c. 18.)-EDITOR.)
(** The 47th proposition of Euclid, which is attributed to Pythagoras, is contained in the first book, and is as follows: --
THEOREM.
"In any right-angled triangle, the square which is described upon the side subtending the right angle, is equal to the squares described upon the sides containing the right angle."
THE DEMONSTRATION
(Picture of 47th Problem)
In geometrical solutions and demonstrations of quantities, this proposition is of excellent use, and the example is held by us as memorial of Pythaguras.)
(*** There is no wonder that Pythagoras plumed himself on this discovery; for it contains a solution of all mathematical, mechanical, and philosophical knowledge, and forms a key to the doctrine of proportion of the powers of quantities, whether arithmetical, geometrical, or algebraic. It may be applied to construct figures of duplicate ratios to other given figures. He called it the Eureka, to denote its superior importance. And hence it is delineated on the jewel worn by the expert Master Mason who has passed the chair of his lodge.-EDITOR.)
The record also says, that Pythagoras formed
a great lodge at Crotona, in Grecia Magna, and
made many Masons; some of whom journeyed to France, and there
made Masons; from whence, in process of time, the art passed into
England. From whence it is to be understood, that the pupils of
this philosopher, who had been initiated by him, in the Crotonian
school, in the sciences and the study of nature, which he had
acquired in his travels, dispersed themselves, and taught the
doctrine of their preceptor.* The same record says, that Masons
teach mankind the arts of agriculture, architecture, astronomy,
geometry, numbers, music, poesy, chemistry, government, and religion.
(* From hence it would seem that our Druids received the origin in Gaul; but antiquaries of late years have been of opinion that they originated in Britain.)
I will next observe how far this part of the record corresponds with that which Pythagoras taught.
The Pythagoric tetractys** were, a point, a line, a surface, and a solid.*** His philosophical system is that, in which the sun is supposed to rest in the centre of our system of planets, in which the earth is carried round him annually, being the same with the Copernican. It seems as if this system was professed by Masons, in contradistinction to those who held the Mosaic system.
(** The Tetractys of Pythagoras was in reality the same a. Jewish Tetragrammaton, or sacred name of God.-EDITOR.)
(*** In the Theocratic Philosophy, lect. vi., is a copious dissertation on the entire system of Pythagoras, so far as it applies to Freemasonry. -EDITOR.)
Among the Jews were a set of men who were called Masorites. In Godwin's "Moses and Aaron," this account is given of them, "that their name was derived from the Hebrew word masar, signifying tradere, to deliver, and masar, a tradition delivered from hand to hand to posterity, without writing, as the Pythagoreans and Druids were wont to do."
Pythagoras lived at Samos, in the reign
of Tarquin the Proud, the last king of the Romans, in
the year of Rome 220; or, according to Livy, in the reign of Servius
Tullius, in the year of the
world 3472. From his extraordinary desire of knowledge, he traveled
in order to enrich his mind with the learning of the several countries
through which he passed. He was the first that took the name of
philosopher, that is, a lover of wisdom; which implied that he
did not ascribe the profession of wisdom to himself, but only
the desire of professing it.* His maxims of morality were admirable,
for he was for having the study of philosophy tend solely to elevate
man to a resemblance of the Deity. He believed that God is a soul
diffused through all nature, and that from him human souls are
derived; that they are immortal; and that men need only take pains
to purge themselves of their vices, in order to be reunited to
the Deity. He made unity the principle of all things and believed
that between God and man there are various orders of spiritual
beings, who are the ministers of the Supreme Will. He condemned
all images of the Deity, and would have him worshipped with as
few ceremonies as possible. His disciples brought all their goods
into. a common stock, contemned the pleasures of sense, abstained
from swearing, eating nothing that had life, and believed in the
doctrine of metempsychosis, or transmigration of souls.
(* In Godwyn's "Moses and Aaron,"
treating of the Essenes, we have the following comparisons between
their principles and the maxims of Pythagoras :-" Their dogmata,
their ordinances
or constitutions, did symbolize in many things with Pythagoras,"
therefore my purpose is, first to name Pythagoras, and then to
proceed with the Essenes; they follow thus: "The Pythagoreans
pins professed a communion of goods; so did the Essenes; they
had one common purse or stock-none richer, none poorer, than others.
Out of this common treasury every one supplied his own wants without
leave, and administered to others; only they might not relieve
any of their kindred, without leave from the overseers. They did
not buy or sell among themselves, but each supplied the other's
want by a kind of commutative bartering; yea, liberty was granted
to take, one from another, what they wanted, without exchange.
They performed office, of service mutually one to another; for
mastership and service cannot stand with communion of goods. When
they traveled, besides weapons of defense, they took nothing with
them; for in whatsoever city or village they came, they repaired
to the fraternity of the Essenes, and were there entertained as
member, of the same. and, if we do attentively read Josephus,
we may observe that the, Essenes of every city joined themselves
into one common fraternity or college. Every college had two sorts
of officers -- treasurers, who looked to the common stock, provided
their diet, appointed each his task, and other public necessaries;
others, who entertained their strangers.
2. The Pythagorean, shunned pleasures; so did the Essenes. To this belonged their avoiding of oil, which, if they touched unawares, they wiped it off presently.
3. The Pythagorean" garments were white; so were the Essenes' white also-modest, not costly. When once they put on a suit, they never changed it till it was worn out, or torn.
4. The Pythagoreans forbad oaths and so did the Essenes. They thought him a noted liar who could not be believed without an oath.
5. The Pythagoreans had their elder, in singular respect; so had the Essenes. The body, or whole company of the Essenes, were distinguished in four ranks, or orders, according to their seniority; and, haply, if any of the superior ranks had touched any of the inferior, he thought himself polluted as if he touched a heathen.
6. The Pythagorean, drank water; so did the Essenes water only-wholly abstaining from wine.
7. They Pytliagoreans used inanimate sacrifices; so did the Essenes -- they sent gifts to the temple, and did not sacrifice; but preferred the use of their holy water thereto for which reason the other Jews forbade them all access to the temple.
8. The Pythagoreans ascribed all things to fate or destiny; so did the Essenes. In this aphorism all the three Jewish sects differed from each other; the Pharisee, ascribed some things to fate, and other things to man's free will; the Essenes ascribed all to fate; the Saducees wholly denied fate, and ascribed all things to man's free will.
9. The Pythagoreans, the first five years, were not permitted to speak in the school, but were initiated perquinque annorum silentiurn, and not until then suffered to come into the presence of, or sight of Pythagonas. To this may be referred the Essence' silence at table, straightly observed, decemsimul sedentibus, nemo loquitur invitis novem. Drusius renders it, that ten of them sitting together, none of them spake without leave obtained of the nine. When any did speak, it was not their custom to interrupt him with words, but by nods of the head or beckonings, or holding their finger, or shaking their heads, and other such like dumb signs and gestures, to signify their doubtings, disliking, or approving, the matter in hand. And to the time of silence among the Pythagoreans, -- that it must be five years, -- may be referred to the imitation of the Essenes; for amongst them none were presently admitted into their society, without full trial and four years' probation. The first year they received dolobellum, a spade; perezonia, a pair of breeches used in bathing; and vestem al bam, a white garment which the sect affected. At this time they had their commons allowed them, but without, not in the common hall. The second year they admitted them to the participation of holy matters, and instructed them in the use of them. Two years after, they admitted them in full manner, making them of their corporation, after they had received an oath truly to observe all the rules and orders the Essenes. If any broke his oath, one hundred of them, being assembled together, expelled him; upon which expulsion commonly followed death within a short time; for none, having once entered this order, might receive alms or any meat from other; and themselves would feed such a one only with distasteful herbs, which wasted his body and brought it very low. Sometimes they would re-admit such a one, being brought near unto death: but commonly they suffered him to die in that manner.
10. The Essenes worshipped towards the sun rising.
11. The Essenes bound themselves, in their oath, "to preserve the name of angels;" the phrase implying a kind of worshipping of them.
12. They were, above all others, strict in the observation of the Sabbath-day; on it they would dress no meat, kindle no fire, remove no vessels out of their place, no nor ease nature; yea, they observed every seventh week a solemn pentecost; seven pentecosts every year." From the great similitude in the principles of the Pythagoreans and Essenes, it seems as if they were derived from one origin, varying in some few particulars suitable to the constitutions of the people; and most probably they first sprang from the Egyptian tenets and maxims.)
Some eminent writers deny that Pythagoras
taught that souls passed into animals. Reuchlin
in particular, denies this doctrine, and maintains that the metempsychosis
of Pythagoras implied nothing more than a similitude of manners
and desires formerly existing in some person deceased, and now
revived in another alive. Pythagoras is said to have borrowed
the notion of meternpsychosis from the Egyptians, others say from
the ancient Brachmans.
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